Everything about Al Biruni totally explained
(
September 15 973 in Kath,
Khwarezm –
December 13 1048 in
Ghazni) was a
Persian scholar of the 11th century. Biruni was well-known in the
Islamic world, but unlike some of his other contemporaries (such as
Abulcasis,
Alhacen and
Avicenna), his name was little known in the
Western world.
He was a
scientist and
physicist, an
anthropologist and
psychologist, an
astronomer, a
chemist, a critic of
alchemy and
astrology, an
encyclopedist and
historian, a
geographer and
traveller, a
geodesist and
geologist, a
mathematician, a
pharmacist and physician, an
Islamic philosopher and
Shia theologian, and a
scholar and
teacher, and he contributed greatly to all of these fields.
He was the first Muslim scholar to study
India and the
Brahminical tradition, and has been described as the father of
Indology, the father of
geodesy, and "the first
anthropologist". and was responsible for introducing the
experimental method into
mechanics,
A. I. Sabra desribed Biruni as "One of the great scientific minds in all history."
The
Al-Biruni crater, on the
Moon, is named after Biruni.
Tashkent Technical University (formerly Tashkent Polytechnic Institute) is also named after Abu Rayhan al-Biruni.
Biography
He was born in
Khwarazm (formerly north-eastern part of the
Persian Samanid dynasty) presently in
Khiva,
Uzbekistan. He studied
mathematics and
astronomy under
Abu Nasr Mansur.
He was a colleague of the fellow
Persian Muslim philosopher and physician
Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), the historian, philosopher and ethicist
Ibn Miskawayh, in a university and science center established by prince Abu al-Abbas Ma'mun Khawarazmshah. He also travelled to
South Asia or Central Asia (Modern Day Afghanistan) with
Mahmud of Ghazni (whose son and successor Masud was, however, his major patron), and accompanied him on his campaigns in
India (in 1030), learning
Indian languages, and studying the religion and philosophy of its people. There, he also wrote his
Ta'rikh al-Hind ("Chronicles of India"). Biruni wrote his books in
Arabic and his native language
Persian, though he knew no less than four other languages:
Greek,
Sanskrit,
Syriac, and possibly
Berber. 6 of his surviving works are on astronomy. His extant works include:
- Critical study of what India says, whether accepted by reason or refused (Arabic تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة معقولة في العقل أم مرذولة) - a compendium of India's religion and philosophy
- The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries (Arabic الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية) - a comparative study of calendars of different cultures and civilizations, interlaced with mathematical, astronomical, and historical information.
- The Mas'udi Canon (Persian قانون مسعودي) - an extensive encyclopedia on astronomy, geography, and engineering, named after Mas'ud, son of Mahmud of Ghazni, to whom he dedicated
- Understanding Astrology (Arabic التفهيم لصناعة التنجيم) - a question and answer style book about mathematics and astronomy, in Arabic and Persian
- Pharmacy - about drugs and medicines
- Gems (Arabic الجماهر في معرفة الجواهر) about geology, minerals, and gems, dedicated to Mawdud son of Mas'ud
- Astrolabe
- A historical summary book
- History of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father
- History of Khawarazm
Astronomy
Will Durant wrote the following on al-Biruni's contributions to
Islamic astronomy:
Experimental observations
Biruni was the first to conduct elaborate
experiments related to
astronomical phenomena. He supposed the
Milky Way galaxy to be a collection of numerous
nebulous stars. In
Khorasan, he observed and described the
solar eclipse on April 8, 1019, and the
lunar eclipse on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact
latitudes of the stars during the lunar eclipse. in which he recorded his astronomical findings and formulated astronomical tables. The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the
acceleration of the planets, and first states that the motions of the
solar apogee and the
precession are not identical. Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than
Ptolemy's estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual
solar eclipses.
Al-Biruni also introduced a new method of
observation called the "three points observation". A later Muslim polymath astronomer,
Taqi al-Din, described the three points as "two of them being in opposition in the
ecliptic and the third in any desired place." Prior to al-Biruni, astronomers used the relatively inaccurate method of
Hipparchus who used the intervals of
seasons for calculating solar parameters. Al-Biruni's new "three points observation" was an important contribution to practical astronomy, and was still used six centuries later by Taqi al-Din,
Tycho Brahe and
Nicolaus Copernicus to calculate the
eccentricity of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the
apogee.
Instruments
Al-Biruni invented a number of
astronomical instruments. He wrote the first treatises on the
planisphere and the
orthographical astrolabe, as well as a treatise on the
armillary sphere, and he was able to mathematically determine the direction of the
Qibla from any place in the world. He also wrote the earliest treatise on the
sextant.
He also invented an early
hodometer, and the first
mechanical lunisolar calendar computer which employed a
gear train and eight
gear-wheels. These were early examples of fixed-
wired knowledge processing
machines.
In his
Exhaustive Treatise on Shadows, he explained the calculation of
Salah prayer times according to the shadow cast by the
gnomon of a
sundial.
The first description of an "observation tube" is found in a work of al-Biruni, in a section "dedicated to verifying the presence of the new crescent on the horizon." Though these early observation tubes didn't have
lenses, they "enabled an observer to focus on a part of the sky by eliminating
light inteference." These observation tubes were later adopted in
Latin-speaking Europe, where they influenced the development of the
telescope.
Theories
In 1030,
Biruni discussed the
Indian heliocentric theories of
Aryabhata,
Brahmagupta and
Varahamihira in his
Indica. Biruni noted that the question of heliocentricity was a philosophical rather than a mathematical problem.
Abu Said
al-Sijzi, a contemporary of Biruni, suggested the possible
heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which Biruni didn't reject. Biruni agreed with the
Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the
heliocentric and
geocentric models, he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.
Refutation of astrology
The first
semantic distinction between astronomy and
astrology was given by al-Biruni in the 11th century. In a later work, he wrote a refutation of astrology. His reasons for refuting astrology were both due to the methods used by astrologers being
conjectural rather than
empirical and also due to the views of astrologers conflicting with orthodox
Islam.
Earth sciences
Biruni made a number of contributions to the
Earth sciences. In particular, he's regarded as the father of
geodesy, and has made significant contributions to
cartography,
geography,
geology and
mineralogy.
Cartography
By the age of 22, he'd written several short works, including a study of
map projections,
Cartography, which included a method for projecting a
hemisphere on a
plane.
Geodesy and Geography
At the age of 17, Biruni calculated the
latitude of Kath,
Khwarazm, using the maximum altitude of the Sun. Al-Biruni also solved a complex
geodesic equation in order to accurately compute the
Earth's
circumference, which were close to modern values of the Earth's circumference. His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the
Earth radius was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km. In contrast to his predecessors who measured the Earth's circumference by sighting the Sun simultaneously from two different locations, al-Biruni developed a new method of using
trigonometric calculations based on the angle between a
plain and
mountain top which yielded more accurate measurements of the Earth's circumference and made it possible for it to be measured by a single person from a single location.
John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the
MacTutor History of Mathematics archive:
Mineralogy
Biruni's
Kitab al-Jawahir (
Book of Precious Stones) described
minerals such as
stones and
metals in depth, and was regarded as the most complete book on
mineralogy in his time. He conducted hundreds of
experiments to gauge the accurate measurements of items he
catalogued, and he often listed them by name in a number of different languages, including
Arabic,
Persian,
Greek,
Syriac,
Hindi,
Latin, and other languages. In the
Book of Precious Stones, he catalogued each
mineral by its
color,
odor,
hardness,
density and
weight. The weights for many of these minerals he measured were correct to three
decimal places of accuracy, and were almost as accurate as modern measurements for these minerals.
Philosophy of science
Scientific method
In
early Islamic philosophy, Biruni discussed the
philosophy of science and introduced an early
scientific method in nearly every field of
inquiry he studied. For example, in his treatise on
mineralogy,
Kitab al-Jamahir (
Book of Precious Stones), he's "the most
exact of
experimental scientists", while in the introduction to his
study of India, he declares that "to execute our project, it hasn't been possible to follow the geometric method" and develops
comparative sociology as a scientific method in the field. He was also responsible for introducing the experimental method into
mechanics, and a pioneer of
experimental psychology. He argued that if instruments produce random errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken,
analyzed qualitatively, and on this basis, arrive at a "common-sense single value for the
constant sought", whether an
arithmetic mean or a "reliable
estimate."
Natural philosophy
Biruni and
Avicenna (Ibn Sina), who are regarded as two of the greatest
polymaths in Persian history, were both colleagues and knew each other since the turn of the millennium. Biruni later engaged in a written
debate with Avicenna, with Biruni criticizing the
Peripatetic school for its adherence to
Aristotelian physics and
natural philosophy, while Avicenna and his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi respond to Biruni's criticisms in writing.
Biruni began the debate by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of
Aristotle's
On the Heavens, with his first question criticizing the
Aristotelian theory of gravity for denying the existence of or
gravity in the
celestial spheres, and the Aristotelian notion of
circular motion being an
innate property of the heavenly bodies. Biruni's second question criticizes Aristotle's over-reliance on more ancient views concerning the
heavens, while the third criticizes the Aristotelian view that
space has only six directions. The fourth question deals with the continuity and discontinuity of
physical bodies, while the fifth criticizes the Peripatetic denial of the possibility of there existing another
world completely different from the world known to them.
In his sixth question, Biruni rejects Aristotle's view on the
celestial spheres having
circular orbits rather than
elliptic orbits. In his seventh question, he rejects Aristotle's notion that the motion of the heavens begins from the right side and from the
east, while his eighth question concerns Aristotle's view on the
fire element being
spherical. The ninth question concerns the movement of
heat, and the tenth question concerns the transformation of
elements.
The eleventh question concerns the burning of bodies by
radiation reflecting off a
flask filled with
water, and the twelfth concerns the natural tendency of the
classical elements in their upward and downward movements. The thirteenth question deals with
vision, while the fourteenth concerns
habitation on different parts of
Earth. His fifteenth question asks how two opposite
squares in a square divided into four can be
tangential, while the sixteenth question concerns
vacuum. His seventeenth question asks "if things expand upon heating and contract upon cooling, why does a flask filled with water break when water freezes in it?" His eighteenth and final question concerns the observable phenomenon of
ice floating on water.
After Avicenna responded to the questions, Biruni was unsatisfied with some of the answers and wrote back commenting on them, after which Avicenna's student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi wrote back on behalf of Avicenna.
In the
dynamics and
kinematics fields of
mechanics, Biruni was the first to realize that
acceleration is connected with non-uniform
motion, which is part of
Newton's second law of motion. He also introduced the method of checking
tests during
experiments, measured the
weights of various liquids, and recorded the differences in weight between
freshwater and
saline water, and between hot water and cold water.
During his
experiments, he invented the
conical measure, in order to find the ratio between the
weight of a substance in air and the weight of water displaced, and to accurately measure the specific weights of the gemstones and their corresponding
metals, which are very close to modern measurements.
Social sciences
Anthropology
In the
social sciences, Biruni has been described as "the first
anthropologist". He wrote detailed comparative studies on the
anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the
Middle East,
Mediterranean and
South Asia. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.
Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his
Islamic anthropology.
Al-Biruni developed a sophisticated
methodology for his anthropological studies. For example, he wrote the following in the opening passages of his
Indica:
witness accounts:
History
By the age of 27, in the year
1000, he'd written a book called
Chronology which referred to other works he'd completed (now lost) that included one book about the
astrolabe, one about the
decimal system, four about
astrology, and two about
history.
In his
Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li'l-Hind (
Researches on India), he was the first to distinguish between the
historical method and the
scientific method. He also discussed more on his idea of
history in another work,
The Chronology of the Ancient Nations.
Indology
Until the 10th century,
history most often meant political and military history, but this wasn't so with Biruni (973-1048). In his
Kitab fi Tahqiq ma li'l-Hind (
Researches on India), he didn't record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on
India's
cultural,
scientific, social and
religious history.. His religious affiliations is clear in his book 'The Chronology Of Ancient Nations'.. He refers to 'Ali ibn Abi Talib as 'the Prince of the Believers' while not doing the same for Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman. He places great emphasise on the commemoration of the martyrdom of Husayn ibn `Ali going into detail about the event and rejects the Sunni hadith that promotes fasting on the day of Ashura. He also refers to the murderer of `Ali as the cursed while not doing the same with the killer of Umar. He mentions the birth and death of Shia Imams, Fatima daughter of Muhammad and Khadija, Muhammad's wife. He was critical of
Mutazili theologians, particularly
al-Jahiz and Zurqan, and he also criticized
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi's sympathy for
Manichaeanism.
Biruni also assigned to the
Qur'an a separate and autonomous realm of its own and held that:
intellect makes humans superior to
animals and that
God "placed humans as
stewards over
Earth and other terrestrial life-forms." He also considered
hearing and
sight to be the two most important
senses, as they allow humans to "observe the signs of God's divine wisdom in his creations" and "receive the word of God and his command."
Comparative religion
In
religious education, Biruni was a pioneer of
comparative religion. According to
Arthur Jeffery, "It is rare until modern times to find so fair and unprejudiced a statement of the views of other
religions, so earnest an attempt to study them in the best sources, and such care to find a method which for this branch of study would be both rigorous and just."
In the introduction to his
Indica, Biruni himself writes that his intent behind the work was to engage
dialogue between Islam and the
Indian religions, particularly
Hinduism as well as
Buddhism. He writes:
Hermeticism and often criticized its religious views. He showed an interest in comparative religion, comparing Islam with pre-Islamic religions, and was willing to accept certain elements of pre-Islamic wisdom which would conform with his understanding of the Islamic spirit.
Other contributions
Biomedical sciences
In the
biomedical sciences, al-Biruni's
Kitab al-Saidana fi al-Tibb was an extensive
medical and
pharmacological encyclopedia which synthesized
Islamic medicine with
Indian medicine. His medical investigations included one of the earliest descriptions on
Siamese twins. It was the earliest to describe the eating of several
fungi, including
truffles, which are a type of
hypogeous fungi. The earliest documented description of
khat also dates back to the
Kitab al-Saidana, in which al-Bīrūnī wrote that khat is:
Chemistry
Along with
al-Kindi and
Avicenna, Biruni was one of the first
chemists to reject the theory of the
transmutation of metals supported by some
alchemists.
Linguistics
In
linguistics, al-Biruni could speak, read and write in a number of different languages, including
Persian,
Arabic,
Greek,
Hebrew and
Sanskrit. and could also speak some
Hindi and
Latin.
[
]Mathematics
He made significant contributions to mathematics, especially in the fields of theoretical and practical arithmetic, summation of series, combinatorial analysis, the rule of three, irrational numbers, ratio theory, algebraic definitions, method of solving algebraic equations, geometry, and the development of Archimedes' theorems.
Further Information
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